Oncogenic Viruses

• Viruses are the intracellular pathogens that reproduce only in the living cell and manipulate the cellular machinery to produce more viruses.
• Viral replications can affect cellular genes of the host in multiple cancerous ways.
• An oncovirus is a virus that can cause cancer.
• Viruses account for about 20% of total human cancer cases.
• Although many viruses can cause various tumors in animals, only seven of them are associated with human cancers and are currently considered oncogenic viruses.

Introduction

• These viruses include hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), human papillomavirus (HPV), Epstein Barr virus (EBV), human herpes virus 8 (HHV8), Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), and HTLV-1.
• HBV and HCV cause approximately 80% of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common cancer of the liver.
• High-risk HPV strains are the major causes of cervical cancer and other ano-genital neoplasms as well as a significant proportion of head and neck tumors.
• EBV is associated with nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and Burkitt’s lymphoma.
• HHV8 (also called Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, KSHV) is responsible for Kaposi’s sarcoma often found in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
• MCPyV causes Merkel cell carcinoma and HTLV-1 is the causative agent of adult T-cell lymphoma.

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV)

• HBV and HCV can cause a liver infection that can sometimes lead to liver cancer.
• You pick up these viruses if you share needles used to inject drugs, have unprotected sex, or get a transfusion with contaminated blood.
• Doctors treat HBV and HCV infections with medicine.
• You can often get rid of HCV after a few months of treatment. 
• Medication doesn’t cure HBV, but it can lower the chance of liver damage and liver cancer.
• There’s a vaccine to prevent HBV, but not HCV. Those with higher chances of getting HBV should get vaccinated. That includes people who have HIV, inject illicit drugs, or are health care workers.

Kaposi Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus (KSHV)

• KSHV is a herpes virus that can cause Kaposi sarcoma, a cancer of the blood vessels, as well as two types of lymphoma.
• You’re more likely to get cancer from KSHV if you have a weakened immune system because you had an organ transplant, get chemotherapy, or have AIDS.
• The virus can be spread during sex, and also through blood and saliva.

Merkel Cell Polyomavirus (MCV)

• MCV is a common virus that infects the skin.
• It usually doesn’t cause symptoms or lead to cancer. But in some people, MCV causes a rare skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

• HPV is a group of more than 200 viruses, and at least a dozen of them can cause cancer.
• HPV spreads during vaginal or anal sex.
• HPV often goes away on its own and doesn’t cause any health problems. Some people stay infected, though.
• If they have the HPV that causes cancer, it can lead to cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, tonsils, or tongue.
• HPV vaccines can keep you from getting infected with the virus. Health officials recommend them for young women through age 26 and young men through age 21.

Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1)

• HTLV-1 infects T cells, which are a type of white blood cell. It can cause leukemia and lymphoma.
• HTLV-1 spreads several ways, including: From mother to child during birth or through breastfeeding, sharing needles with infected people, organ transplant, unsafe sex, etc.
• About 2% to 5% of people who have the virus get adult T-cell leukemia or other health conditions. It’s not clear why some people get leukemia and others don’t. Symptoms and how it develops are different for each person.
• There isn’t a cure or treatment for HTLV-1. It’s a lifelong condition. But regular checkups can lower your chances of cancer.

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)

• EBV is a common virus. Most people get infected with it at some point in their lives. Most of the time, people with EBV stay healthy and don’t have symptoms.
• For others, EBV can cause mononucleosis and other more serious conditions, from viral meningitis to pneumonia.

Several cancers are linked with EBV as well:

• Burkitt’s lymphoma
• Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (cancer of the upper throat)
• Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
• T-cell lymphomas
• Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (too many white blood cells)
• Leiomyosarcoma (cancer in the soft tissue)
• There’s no vaccine for EBV, but you can help protect yourself by not kissing or sharing drinks, food, or personal items with someone who has the virus.
• There’s no specific treatment if you have EVB, but you can ease symptoms if you drink plenty of fluids, get rest, and take medicines for pain and fever.

Mechanisms of Viral Oncogenesis

The molecular mechanisms of viral oncogenesis are complex and may involve:

1. Induction of chronic inflammation
2. Disruption of host genetic and epigenetic integrity and homeostasis
3. Interference with cellular DNA repair mechanisms resulting in genome instability
4. Cell cycle dysregulation.
5. Oncogenic DNA viruses can also insert their genomic DNA into cellular chromosomes, resulting in genetic abnormity.
6. Viral ‘oncoproteins’ can activate cellular signaling pathways, alter the expression of cellular genes and microRNAs either transcriptionally or post-transcriptionally, and destabilize or inactivate tumor suppressor proteins and proteins that regulate cell polarity, signal transduction, immune response, and apoptosis.
7. Genetic and epigenetic alterations induced by infection and replication of oncogenic viruses may lead to the appearance and proliferation of cancer stem cells, which are important for the initiation, progression, metastasis, relapse, and chemotherapy resistance of cancers.

The importance and underlying molecular mechanisms of specific cellular genes and signaling pathways in viral oncogenesis are subjects of intense research efforts.

How to Fight Malignant Mesothelioma Cancer

Mesothelioma Cancer

• Mesothelioma is a rare type of cancer that occurs in the thin layer of cells lining the body’s internal organs, known as the mesothelium.
• The mesothelium is made of epithelial cells and also lines the thoracic and abdominal cavities as well as the heart sac.
• The cancer is caused by the exposure to asbestos.
• When asbestos fibers are inhaled or ingested, they can enter the mesothelium and injure the mesothelial cells, eventually giving rise to malignant tumors in the lungs, abdomen, heart or testes.

Mesothelioma Types

There are three main recognized types of mesothelioma:

1. Pleural mesothelioma: The most common form of the disease, accounting for roughly 70% of cases, and occurs in the lining of the lung known as the pleura.
2. Peritoneal mesothelioma: It occurs in the lining of the abdominal cavity, known as the peritoneum.
3. Pericardial mesothelioma: It originates in the pericardium, which lines the heart. It is the rarest of the major types of asbestos-related cancer.
4. Testicular mesothelioma: Rare, found in the testicles.

Mesothelioma Causes

• Mesothelioma is primarily believed to be caused by exposure to asbestos and the inhalation or ingestion of asbestos particles.

• Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals which share a common crystal growing form. They grow as sharp, thin, long and flexible fibers and because of their great strength and resistibility to heat and harsh chemicals, it is incredibly useful in industries. However, they are found to be carcinogenic and inhaling asbestos fibers is dangerous.
• An individual may be at risk to develop mesothelioma if he or she is exposed to asbestos in the workplace or at home consistently. 
• Individuals may also suffer from secondhand exposure to asbestos such as by growing up in the shadow of an asbestos plant or mine, living near a natural source, and having family members who work with asbestos and inadvertently bring fibers into home on their clothes, skin, or in their hair.
• Recent events have also shown that exposure to a large amount of asbestos for a short amount of time may also result in development of this disease. 
• In addition, researchers have studied the impact of certain genetic factors on the development of mesothelioma and noted that those with a family history of cancer have a greater chance of developing mesothelioma.
• Other less known contributing factors include: Asbestos-Like Minerals, Simian Virus 40 (SV40), Smoking, Radiation Exposure and Carbon Nanotubes.

Mesothelioma Mechanism of Tumor Formation

1. Pleural mesothelioma

• Once tiny asbestos fibers are inhaled, they are difficult to expel due to their extremely small size and hydrophobicity. They make their way into the inner space of the lungs and slowly into the epithelial cells into the visceral or parietal pleura which are both the layers of mesothelium. The microscopic jagged asbestos is not metabolized or cleared hence, it remains for life. The presence of these fibers leads to an inflammatory response and DNA damage. Eventually mutations may arise that lead to the epithelial cells dividing uncontrollably resulting into tumors.
• Directly, asbestos interferes with the mitosis process in cell division, which can cause cellular damage and mutation. Indirectly, asbestos can cause mesothelial cells to release mutagenic reactive oxygen and nitrogen, which also causes mutation.

2. Peritoneal mesothelioma

• Similarly, asbestos fibers can also end up in the stomach if saliva containing the material or mucous from the airways is swallowed. They, there make their way into the epithelial tissues and produce similar sequence of events.

3. Pericardial mesothelioma

• Asbestos may also travel through the lymph nodes to other parts of the body, such as the pericardium, the mesothelial layer surrounding the heart.

Mesothelioma Symptoms

• In most cases, mesothelioma symptoms will not appear in an individual exposed to asbestos until many years (often 20-50 years) after the exposure has occurred.
• The symptoms, once evident are similar to other lungs and gastrointestinal cancers.

Pleural mesothelioma

1. Chest pain
2. Shortness of breath
3. Dry cough
4. Pleural efflusions
5. Bloody sputum (If tumours invades into blood vessels)
6. Occasionally destruction of lung tissue between bronchial tree and pleural space
7. Fatigue
8. Hoarseness
9. Hypoxemia – low oxygen level
10. Dysphasia – difficulty swallowing
11. Fever/night sweats

Peritoneal mesothelioma

1. Abdominal/stomach pain
2. Ascites/swelling
3. Anorexia/weight loss
4. Nausea
5. Anemia
6. Thrombosis – blood clots
7. Peritoneal effusion – fluid buildup
8. Fever
9. Hypoglycemia – low blood sugar

Pericardial mesothelioma

1. Chest pain
2. Pericardial effusion (fluid buildup)
3. Arrhythmia
4. Heart murmurs
5. Fever/night sweats
6. Coughing
7. Dyspnea – shortness of breath
8. Pulse variance

• New cases of mesothelioma are diagnosed in between 2,500 and 3,000 Americans each year.
• On average, about 2,500 mesothelioma-related deaths occur in the U.S. each year. Between 1999 and 2010, more than 31,000 people in the U.S. died due to mesothelioma.
• Mesothelioma is much more common in men than women, due mostly to occupational asbestos exposure being more common among men in industrial labor settings.
• Mesothelioma is much less common among African Americans than Caucasians, the reasons for which researchers are still investigating.
• Navy vets and shipyard workers account for about one-third of the total cases, putting them in the highest risk group for developing this aggressive cancer. Greatest incidence of disease is seen in individuals involved in the military, paint and textile industries and construction workers.
• Today, the average mesothelioma patient is a white male, 65 years of age or older.  

Mesothelioma Prognosis

• The biggest factors affecting the prognosis of mesothelioma patients are:

1. Tumor size and staging
2. Cell type (histopathology)
3. Patient’s gender and age
4. Stage of the cancer

• As mesothelioma is often diagnosed in its advanced stages, the prognosis from mesothelioma is often in the range of a year after diagnosis (6 months – 1 year).
• With all types of mesothelioma, prognosis is poor. For patients who do not receive treatment, the median survival is only six months; however, certain types of treatment can improve life expectancy significantly.
• Also if diagnosed early enough, survival may potentially extend over many years.
• Approximately 55 percent of mesothelioma patients live longer than 6 months, while roughly 35 percent live longer than one year. Only 9 percent of people diagnosed with mesothelioma survive longer than 5 years.
• However, patient survival rates are often contingent on the treatments available to the particular patient.

Mesothelioma Diagnosis

Those with a past asbestos exposure history experiencing symptoms should consult a physician with experience in accurately diagnosing mesothelioma. The earlier mesothelioma is diagnosed, the more likely it is to be caught at an early stage.  

1. Perform one or more imaging tests (x-ray, CT scans, PET, or MRI) to identify potential tumors.
2. If such a tumor is detected, one or more blood tests may be performed to look for certain biomarkers (high levels of specific substances in the blood).
3. If these tests point toward the possibility of mesothelioma, the diagnosis will need to be verified through a biopsy – usually through a thoracoscopy, thoracotomy, thoracentesis, or mediastinoscopy.

Misdiagnosis is easy with malignant mesothelioma, because the disease’s symptoms so closely resemble those of other related conditions such as lung cancer or other respiratory ailments.

Mesothelioma Treatment

• Since the disease is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer, there is no known mesothelioma cure. Unfortunately, most patients die within just a few years of a mesothelioma diagnosis.
• The common treatment measures include:
  • Chemotherapy (drugs including Alimta and Cisplatin)
  • Surgical removal of the disease
  • Radiation

• Some newer treatments such as mesothelioma gene therapy and photodynamic therapy have shown promise in fighting this cancer and tests are being developed that will help detect the disease at an earlier stage, providing more hope for the mesothelioma patient.

Mesothelioma Prevention

• Since mesothelioma is almost exclusively caused by exposure to asbestos fibers, avoiding asbestos exposure is the key to prevention.
• Under current laws, the maximum permissible level of exposure is 0.1 fibers per cubic centimeter for an eight-hour work day and one fiber per cubic centimeter during any thirty minute period.
• In addition, employers are obligated to monitor and regulate the work environment and provide employees with protective gear and safety training.

Other recommendations on how people can protect themselves against non occupational asbestos exposure include:

1. Regular inspection and monitoring of asbestos products or materials in and around the home; asbestos was part of many common building materials.
2. Having asbestos abatement carried out by trained, licensed professionals with proper safety equipment only.
3. Avoiding sweeping, vacuuming, sanding, scraping or otherwise disturbing any surfaces that may be made from asbestos or contain asbestos materials.
4. Avoiding the use of tobacco; studies have demonstrated a link beween smoking and mesothelioma showing that smokers face up to a 9000% greater chance of contracting asbestos cancer.
5. Getting regular checkups, particularly if there is a known history of asbestos exposure (i.e. having worked in an industrial occupation).

Orthopaedic Traumatology

Orthopaedic Traumatology

What is Orthopaedic Traumatology? 

Orthopaedic Traumatology refers to the orthopaedic care of patients with difficult or complex fractures, non-unions (the failure of a fractured bone to heal normally) and mal-unions (incomplete healing or healing in a bad position). Orthopaedic trauma is a severe injury to part of the musculoskeletal system such as a bone, joint or ligament. Leading causes of orthopaedic trauma include vehicular and industrial accidents, slips, falls or sports injuries. 

OUR APPROACH

People of all ages can be affected by a traumatic injury. These injuries can be complex to treat and may involve multiple parts of the body. Our surgeons, who are specially trained in orthopaedic trauma, can quickly and accurately establish a diagnosis and initiate treatment to maximize function.

In traumatic situations, decisions are made quickly. Surgeons rely on their knowledge, training, and experience to choose the appropriate course of treatment. When your bones do not heal as expected, you can be assured our surgeons have experience in handling your potentially complex and sometimes life-threatening situation.

IN AN EMERGENCY Orthopaedic trauma surgeons receive emergency patients at the Hospital Emergency Department. 

Although most traumatic injuries are non-fatal or life-threatening, they have the potential to create long-term and permanent disability. The quicker a diagnosis and a recovery treatment plan can be implemented, the faster a patient can recover. Orthopaedic trauma management differs from treatment of less complicated or isolated fractures as surgery is often required. Preventative actions can minimize trauma injuries incurred as a result of slips, falls or sports injuries.

To learn more about orthopaedic care, we encourage you to search our patient education section. You’ll find literature aimed at helping you understand your orthopaedic injuries, conditions, and treatment options.

Most Common Fracture

Most Common Fracture - Overall - _Clavicle.

Most Common Fracture During Delivery - _Clavicle.

Most Common Fracture During Newborn - _Clavicle.

Most Common Fracture During Childhood - _Greenstick Fracture - Radius > Ulna.

Most Common Fracture During Childhood Around Elbow - _Supracondylar Fracture Of Humerus.

Most Common Fracture Of Carpal Bone - _Fracture Of Scaphoid.

Most Common Dislocation Of Carpal Bone - _Lunate.

Most Common Fracture Of Tarsal Bone - _Calcaneus Fracture.

Most Common Dislocation Of Tarsal Bone - _Talus.

Most Common Fracture Due To Fall On Outstretched Hand In Children - _Supracondylar Fracture Of Humerus.

Most Common Fracture Due To Fall On Outstretched Hand In Adolescent - _Fracture Of Scaphoid.

Most Common Fracture Due To Fall On Outstretched Hand In Elderly - _Colles Fracture.

Most Common Bone To Undergo Open Fracture - _Tibia.

Most Common Bone To Undergo Stress Fracture - _Tibia > Metatarsal (Second).

Most Common Bone To Undergo Pathological Fracture - _Vertebral Body Of Thoracic Spine.

Most Common Joint To Undergo Dislocation - _Shoulder Joint.

Most Common Joint To Undergo Traumatic Dislocation - _Shoulder.

Most Common Joint To Undergo Spontaneous Dislocation - _Shoulder.

Most Common Joint To Undergo Recurrent Dislocation - _Shoulder.

Most Common Joint To Undergo Dislocation In Children - _Elbow.

Second Most Common Joint To Undergo Recurrent Dislocation - _Patellofibular Joint.

Least Common Joint To Undergo Dislocation - _knee Joint.

Least Common Joint To Undergo Recurrent Dislocation - _Ankle Joint.

Most Common Tendon Injury - _Supraspinatus > TendoAchilles.

Strongest Tendon - _Tendo Achilles

Most Common Ligament To Undergo Sprain - _Anterior Talofibular.

Strongest Ligament Of Human Body - _Bigelow‘s Ligament (Iliofemoral Ligament).

Most Common Peripheral Nerve Injury - _Radial Nerve.

Best Prognosis - _Radial Nerve Injury.

Most Common Arterial Injury - _Popliteal Artery.

Science Vocabulary Words You Should Know

ACT Science is all about getting the maximum number of questions right in a relatively short period. Having a strong vocabulary helps a lot in improving your understanding of the questions and reducing the time it would take for you to understand the question. This article will help you improve your ACT score by compiling a list of commonly used words in the ACT Science vocabulary along with their meanings.

Remember that this word list is not a substitute for the concepts themselves. It serves as a summary of commonly used words with which you need to be familiar. However, if you do not understand a word or the associated concept, it is necessary that you study that concept from a recommended textbook.

A Few Tips to Help You Remember the Words and Concepts

Some students understandably have a hard time memorizing a given list of words or phrases. Here are a few tips which might help you if you feel like you’re getting stuck and are unable to remember the words or concepts:

1. Use flashcards as a tool for improving your learning.
2. Do not try to study and remember all of them at once. ACT Science vocabulary is not something you can read once and then remember. Break them down into sets of 10 – 20 words and then study them. Once you feel confident with one set, move onto the next set until you are done.
3. If you are unable to understand the underlying concept, try looking it up in your textbook or online. It is always easier to remember something you understand rather than simply memorizing it.
4. You can also use the list as a tool for a quick review before your ACT exam.

The 101 Words

Here is a list of words which have commonly been a part of the ACT Science vocabulary. However, keep in mind that this list is not exhaustive and would not contain all the possible words and concepts you would need to know.

1. Absolute zero: the lowest possible temperature. It is 0 Kelvin or approximately -273 degrees Celsius.
2. Abundant: something which is plentiful or exists in large quantities.
3. Acceleration: rate of change of velocity, often expressed in m/s².
4. Acid: a molecule capable of donating a positively-charged hydrogen ion, or capable of forming a covalent bond by donating an electron pair.
5. Adhere: to stick completely on a surface.
6. Aerobic respiration: the process of glucose breakdown in the body of an animal for supplying muscles with oxygen.
7. Altitude: the vertical distance between an object and the ground or sea level; any object on the ground or sea level is said to have 0 altitude.
8. Analyze: to examine something in detail (such as phenomena, the result of an experiment, data collected from a survey, etc.).
9. Anecdote: a story told by someone based on his/her past experiences.
10. Anticipate: to predict an event or a result based on current events or past experiences.
11. Assert: to state a fact or belief with authority and confidence; to make others believe in one’s authority.
12. Burgeon: for something to grow or increase rapidly.
13. Attribute: a feature or property which is regarded as a part of something or someone.
14. Characteristic: something which is commonly a feature or a quality of a person, place, or a thing.
15. Carbohydrate: an organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen at a ratio of 1:2:1. For example, sugars and starches are the main sources of energy for living beings.
16. Catalyst: a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction but does not change the outcomes of the reaction.
17. Chlorophyll: the green pigment present in plants which captures light energy for photosynthesis.
18. Coherent: logical and consistent with the preceding arguments, theories, or policies.
19. Correspond: to agree or correlate with; to communicate by exchanging messages.
20. Combustion: a high-temperature reaction involving a fuel and an oxidant (usually oxygen), commonly associated with the process of burning.
21. Compose: to be a part of or to make up something; to write or create a work of literature, art, science, etc.
22. Compressibility: a measure of the amount of effort it would take to reduce the volume of the matter by applying pressure. Lower compressibility would indicate more effort is required to reduce the volume.
23. Conduction and conductivity: conduction is the transmission of energy like heat or electricity. Conductivity is an attribute of a material specifying its efficiency in transferring that energy.
24. Conductor: a material which offers minimum resistance to the flow of heat or electricity.
25. Contour: the outline which represents the bounding shape of an object or form; to mold something into a specific shape.
26. Consecutive: something which is followed in an unbroken or continuous sequence.
27. Contradict: to assert the opposite or to deny the truth of a statement.
28. Correlate: to have a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.
29. Critical: expressing harsh or disapproving comments or judgments about something; analyzing a work of science, literature, music, etc.; describing a situation or a problem which can be potentially disastrous.
30. Decelerate: to slow down, or to reduce the speed (or velocity) of a moving body.
31. Deposition: a substance that is naturally deposited somewhere.
32. Determine: to find the exact cause and explanation of an event, phenomena, result (in an experiment), etc.
33. Diffusion time: the amount of time it takes for molecules or atoms of a material to spread from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration.
34. Distinguish: to treat something or recognize it as different.
35. Dissoluble: something which can be dissolved into another liquid or aqueous solution.
36. Ecology: the field of science which is concerned with relationships between organisms and their environments.
37. Efficient: to be able to accomplish a task or a purpose without wasting resources (such as time, energy, money, etc.).
38. Electron: a fundamental part of an atom. It is negatively charged.
39. Emit: to discharge, generally used in the context of heat, light, radiation, etc.
40. Emerge: to become obvious, more prominent, or important.
41. Emulsion: a state where one liquid is suspended in another but the two liquids would not dissolve in one another.
42. Engage: to make someone or something involved in an event, conversation, or discussion; to participate or get involved in something; to keep someone’s interest.
43. Equilibrium: a state where all the constituents of a system (such as reactants in a chemical reaction) are in balance.
44. Erode or Erosion: the process of air or water flow removing soil, rock, or material from one location and transporting them to another location.
45. Evolve: to develop something gradually; to develop something from a simpler form to more complex forms.
46. Exhibit: to make property or a skill visible or apparent.
47. Fermentation: the chemical process of breaking something down into simpler substances. For example, when sugar is fermented into alcohol.
48. Friction: a force acting between two solid surfaces where the relative motion of the surfaces is resisted.
49. Fuse: (verb) to join different objects together; (noun) a safety device used in electrical equipment which breaks the circuit in case more current than desired is drawn into the circuit.
50. Gauge: (verb) to estimate or measure a property (such as volume, amount, etc.); (noun) a device which measures a certain property of something.
51. Given: information which is specified or stated.
52. Habitat: an area where an organism naturally lives in the ecosystem.
53. Herbivore: an animal that survives by exclusively eating plants.
54. Humidity: the measurement representing the amount of water vapor present in the air.
55. Hypothesis: a tentative theory which has not been verified or proven, but tries to explain certain facts or phenomena.
56. Imminent: an event which is close to happening; something which is about to happen in a short period.
57. Incendiary: something which causes conflicting arguments; a device which is designed to cause and propagate fires.
58. Incremental: a quantity which is gradually increasing with discrete additions regularly.
59. Indigenous: something which naturally exists in a certain area or is native to that area.
60. Infer: to deduce a conclusion not explicitly written in the given evidence and information.
61. Infrared radiation: Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths longer than those of visible light (0.7 microns).
62. Impervious: something which is immune to any change from another thing (specific or in general).
63. Insoluble: something which cannot be dissolved into another liquid or aqueous solution.
64. Insulator: the opposite of conductor, a substance which resists the transfer of heat or electricity through it.
65. Interval: a deterministic period between two activities or instants.
66. Ion: a molecule or an atom which has a positive or negative charge due to losing or gaining one or more electrons
67. Kinetic energy: the energy of the motion of an object.
68. Latter: the second statement stated of the two previous statements.
69. Mass: a measure determined by the amount of matter or energy present in a body, it is the measure of a body’s resistance to acceleration.
70. Neutron: a fundamental part of an atom which has no charge.
71. Notion: a belief about something, an impulse, or desire.
72. Obsolete: something which is no longer of any use, or has a viable replacement which is easier to obtain or function.
73. Organic matter: carbon-based compounds found within natural environments and beings.
74. Osmosis: the process of liquid moving through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution.
75. Omit: to exclude some information intentionally or forgetfully; to fail or neglect to do something.
76. Precipitation: phenomena of any form of water falling to the ground (in the form of rain, mist, snow, etc.).
77. Parasite: an organism which uses another organism as a host and feeds off the host for survival.
78. pH: a scale from 1-14 which specifies the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution. It represents the alkalinity or acidity of that solution. A pH value of 7 is neutral, lower is acidic, and higher is alkaline.
79. Photosynthesis: a process used by plants to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, using energy from sunlight.
80. Precede: an event which occurs before another event in time; something which comes before another thing regarding their positions.
81. Principle: something which forms the foundation of a system or behavior.
82. Proficient: to be well versed and skilled in using a tool or thing.
83. Prolong: to increase the duration or the physical space of an event or object.
84. Proportionality: the relationship between two distinct quantities or amounts. In “directly proportional” quantities, an increase of one quantity causes the increase of the other quantity. In “indirectly proportional” quantities, increase of one quantity causes the decrease of the other quantity.
85. Protein: a compound made up of amino acids which plays several roles in forming the structural components of the body (such as muscles, hair, etc.) within an organism.
86. Proton: a fundamental part of the atom which is positively charged.
87. Radioactive decay: a naturally occurring process by which an atom spontaneously decays into another atom of a different element.
88. Redundant: information which is no longer needed or is of use, usually because it has been stated or deduced earlier.
89. Relevant: information which is related or appropriate to the subject or holds some value or interest to the subject being discussed.
90. Residual: remaining parts after an activity has been done to an object, or something which was left over.
91. Solution: a mixture of two or more substances which is homogeneous (has a uniform mixture and composition).
92. Specific gravity: the ratio of the weight of one substance to the weight of a different substance.
93. Starch: a complex carbohydrate which forms the energy supply within many vegetables.
94. Substrate: a substance which is acted upon by an enzyme; a layer which is underneath another layer.
95. Trial: testing the performance or result of an experiment.
96. Uniform: something which always shows the same form or manner without variation.
97. Variable: a factor which is meant to be changed in an experiment to determine the effects it has on the experiment.
98. Vapor: liquid in gaseous state.
99. Velocity: the speed and direction of an object’s motion.
100. Viscosity: the tendency of a liquid to resist flow. More viscous liquids flow more slowly than less viscous ones.
101. Wavelength: the distance between two successive crests of a wave, such as a sound wave or electromagnetic wave.